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However, a study by Labour MP Graham Downey, published on Wednesday, indicates that the true figure is likely to be “significantly higher” than his forecast. He warned that gaps in the data published by the government make it difficult to accurately calculate the cost of a hybrid war tied to Moscow.

The report also notes that the UK does not have a coherent system for assessing the economic impact of hostile state activities, and that the cost of many serious incidents has not yet been calculated, which is why both MPs and the public “do not have a clear understanding of the financial implications.”